Difference between revisions of "Understanding musical theory"
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Welcome to kamatsu's article on Understanding Musical Theory. | Welcome to kamatsu's article on Understanding Musical Theory. | ||
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| + | <!-- USE http://www.fileformat.info/info/unicode/block/musical_symbols/images.htm FOR MUSICAL SYMBOL REFERENCE --> | ||
The purpose of this article is to teach you: | The purpose of this article is to teach you: | ||
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* Basic Harmony and Dissonance | * Basic Harmony and Dissonance | ||
* Chord Progressions | * Chord Progressions | ||
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__TOC__ | __TOC__ | ||
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==Scales, Keys, and Modes== | ==Scales, Keys, and Modes== | ||
===The C Major Scale=== | ===The C Major Scale=== | ||
| + | Music is made up of notes. Notes are sounds of a particular frequency (measured in hertz). Different frequencies produce different pitches. For the purposes of musical composition, we have culturally assigned particular names to different frequencies as we hear them, usually letters. C, for example, is the note produced when you play the white key before a group of two black keys on a keyboard. | ||
| + | |||
| + | [[File:theory-kbd-c.png|frame|none|keyboard showing C notes]] | ||
| + | |||
| + | '''Note''': You will notice that C occurs every 8 notes on the keyboard. Why is this? The notes are separated by a specific distance of frequencies called an octave, and, for those that know the physics, the frequencies are logarithmically compatible, so that playing them together will sound like the one note. This means that for almost all purposes they can be treated as effectively the same note. Try it, if you have access to a keyboard. You will hear that they sound the same, just with different stylised pitch. | ||
| + | |||
| + | On a Musical score (with a treble clef), we see C as one of these two notes (usually): | ||
| + | |||
| + | [[File:theory-staff-c4c5.png|frame|none|staff, treble clef, C4 & C5]] | ||
| + | |||
| + | From this point, one can easily deduce the names of the other white key notes: | ||
| + | |||
| + | [[File:theory-kbd-allnotes.png|frame|none|keyboard showing all letter notes]] | ||
| + | |||
| + | If you play the white keys on the keyboard, starting at C (C, D, E, F..) you will hear a distinctive sequence of notes that most people recognize as the major scale (''Do, Re, Mi, Fa...''). If you have no idea what a major scale sounds like, here's a recording: | ||
| + | |||
| + | ( link "Link Here" formerly at http://kamatsu.spheredev.org/majorscale.ogg : OGG of C major scale ) | ||
| + | |||
| + | This is a major scale in the key of C. That means, ''Do'', or the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tonic_(music) tonic], is C. Later on, we'll learn how to change the tonic. Here's what a full C Major scale looks like in Musical Notation (with a treble clef): | ||
| + | |||
| + | [[File:theory-staff-cmajortreble.png|frame|none|staff, treble clef, C major scale labeled]] | ||
| + | |||
| + | '''Extra Info''': Think of a melody, say, your national anthem. Then, change the note at which you start the melody. Can you still sing/play it? You should quickly realize that it doesn't actually matter what note you start on, or what note ''Do'' is, for a melody to be recognizable to the human ear. Most humans think of notes relative to each other, not relative to specific frequencies. So, you could sing the Major scale at any pitch, from A through G#, and it would still be a major scale. But, if you start playing a piano from D, and play all the white notes up to the next D, it doesn't sound like a major scale (it's actually a [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dorian_mode dorian scale]). So, obviously, simply shifting all the notes up a line or space in the Notation isn't going to achieve a D Major scale. How do you achieve this? Well, first, we need to learn about semitones, and then keys. | ||
| + | |||
===Clefs=== | ===Clefs=== | ||
| + | A ''clef'' is a sign that is put at the beginning of a line of notation (a ''staff'' - plural ''staves''), that determines what each line represents pitch-wise. On a treble clef, the note on the line below the bottom line of the staff (i.e, ''Do'':C in the above diagrams) represents a specific note called ''Middle C'' (so called because it is in the middle of a piano keyboard). In the Bass clef, Middle C is on the line above the top line of the staff. | ||
| + | |||
| + | '''Mnemonics for Treble Clef''': Suppose you want to be able to immediately identify a note name from looking at a staff (a useful skill). Having a mnemonic or verse to help you remember what each line and spaces stands for is quite useful. Here's the mnemonics for the treble clef. | ||
| + | |||
| + | * For lines (starting at the bottom and going up) - '''E'''very '''G'''ood '''B'''olshevik '''D'''eserves '''F'''reedom. Or, less politically, '''E'''very '''G'''reen '''B'''us '''D'''rives '''F'''ast. Your choice. | ||
| + | * For Spaces (Starting at the bottom space and going up) - '''F A C E''' - It spells "FACE", or, alternatively, you can use: '''F'''ree '''A'''lcohol '''C'''an '''E'''ntice. Once again, your choice. | ||
| + | |||
| + | While for the most part in this article we will be using notation in the ''treble clef'', the most common clef, some scores may be written in the ''bass clef''. The Bass Clef is more suited to lower ranges. | ||
| + | |||
| + | [[File:theory-staff-cmajorbass.png|frame|none|staff, bass clef, C major downward scale labeled]] | ||
| + | |||
| + | '''Mnemonics for remembering the bass clef''': | ||
| + | * Lines (starting at the bottom and going up) can be remembered by "'''G'''ood '''B'''oys '''D'''eserve '''F'''ree '''A'''lcohol". | ||
| + | * Spaces can be remembered by "'''A'''ll '''C'''ows '''E'''at '''G'''rass." | ||
| + | |||
===Intervals, Tones, and Semitones=== | ===Intervals, Tones, and Semitones=== | ||
| + | If you examine a keyboard: | ||
| + | |||
| + | [[File:theory-kbd-allnotes.png|frame|none|keyboard showing 3 octaves, white keys labeled]] | ||
| + | |||
| + | You will quickly see that there are no black keys between E and F, and B and C. Even more importantly, some of you may be wondering what those black keys actually represent. | ||
| + | Between most lettered notes (C, D, E...) there is another note. This note is named relative to the notes it is adjacent to, so the black key between C and D would be called ''C Sharp (C{{sharp}})'' or ''D Flat (D{{flat}})'', depending on your point of reference. | ||
| + | The interval between notes is the distance pitch-wise between them. The interval from C to D is called a tone. The distance, therefore, from C to C{{sharp}}/D{{flat}} is a ''semitone'' - half a tone. | ||
| + | |||
| + | '''Note''': The interval between E and F, as well as B and C is not a tone as you would expect but a semitone. That is why there is no black key between these notes. As a corollary of this, E{{sharp}} is therefore the same note as F, and B{{sharp}} is the same note as C (And C{{flat}} = B, and F{{flat}} = E). If you listen carefully to the major scale recording I played earlier, and you have a good musical ear, you may be able to hear the difference in the interval on these notes. An octave is another type of interval. We will learn more about intervals later in the introduction to harmony. | ||
| + | |||
| + | Now that we have learnt about semitones, we can develop a ''chromatic'' scale. A chromatic scale is a scale that goes up by a semitone each interval. Here's a chromatic scale in musical notation. | ||
| + | |||
| + | [[File:theory-staff-chromaticscale.png|frame|none|staff, treble clef, chromatic scale labeled two ways]] | ||
| + | |||
| + | '''Note''': The first staff uses sharps to notate the semitones, whereas the second staff uses flats. They produce the same tune. | ||
| + | |||
| + | As with before, you can listen to the chromatic scale produced by the above staves below: | ||
| + | |||
| + | ( link "Link Here" formerly at http://kamatsu.spheredev.org/chroma.ogg : OGG of chromatic scale ) | ||
| + | |||
| + | Notice how we start and finish the scale on the same two notes (an octave apart) that we see from the Major Scale, however we fit a helluva lot more notes in? | ||
| + | |||
| + | '''Compositional Tip''': Moving chromatically in a piece can add a chaotic, tense element to your sound. Note however that chromatic music is very difficult to write well, so wait until you're fairly experienced. | ||
| + | |||
| + | '''Extra Info''': Notating sharps or flats in this fashion - next to the notes that are modified - is called ''accidental'' notation. If you apply an accidental to a note, that accidental will apply for the rest of the ''bar'' to all notes on the line or space on which the accidental occurs. A ''bar'' is a way of grouping notes according to time, and they are separated by long vertical lines (as we see in the above staves). We will learn more about bars, barlines, as well as the natural symbol after we have covered keys and time signatures. | ||
| + | |||
===Key Signatures and Accidentals=== | ===Key Signatures and Accidentals=== | ||
| + | If we examine the intervals of a C Major Scale, we can construct the following list of intervals: | ||
| + | |||
| + | * '''C to D''' - Tone | ||
| + | * '''D to E''' - Tone | ||
| + | * '''E to F''' - Semitone | ||
| + | * '''F to G''' - Tone | ||
| + | * '''G to A''' - Tone | ||
| + | * '''A to B''' - Tone | ||
| + | * '''B to C''' - Semitone | ||
| + | |||
| + | This should lead the more apt of you to consider applying the same sequence of intervals from a different starting note. By doing this, you can "move" the major scale to any tonic note. For example, suppose we wanted to make our Major scale start on a G, we simply need to keep the interval pattern of tones and semitones the same as in the C Major Scale: | ||
| + | |||
| + | * '''G to A''' - Tone | ||
| + | * '''A to B''' - Tone | ||
| + | * '''B to C''' - Semitone | ||
| + | * '''C to D''' - Tone | ||
| + | * '''D to E''' - Tone | ||
| + | * '''E to F{{sharp}}''' - Tone | ||
| + | * '''F{{sharp}} to G''' - Semitone | ||
| + | |||
| + | Playing or singing this through will result in a similar sounding scale to the C Major one we heard earlier - except it starts on G. | ||
| + | |||
| + | This leads one on to a concept of a ''key''. A Key is defined in musical notation with a Key Signature. They look like a series of accidentals that are placed at the beginning of a bar (or line) rather than at the beginning of a note. | ||
| + | |||
| + | A Key Signature that, for example, has a sharp in the "F" line on the staff (that is, G Major), looks like the following (with a preceding treble clef): | ||
| + | |||
| + | [[File:theory-staff-keyGmajor.png|frame|none|staff, treble clef, G major key signature]] | ||
| + | |||
| + | This instructs the reader of the music to read all occurrences of "F" in the music as "F{{sharp}}" instead of just plain old F, until another key signature occurs. The advantage of this is that you can write music in another key (i.e using another scale and another tonic) without cluttering up your music with pesky accidentals. | ||
| + | |||
| + | So, we can now produce a G Major Scale in musical notation with a key signature (as F is replaced with F{{sharp}} in all instances), as follows: | ||
| + | |||
| + | [[File:theory-staff-keyGmajorscale.png|frame|none|staff, treble clef, G major key signature and scale]] | ||
| + | |||
| + | Note: Notice how the ''"Do, re, mi…"'' scale has moved so that ''"Do"'' (tonic) is now on G? That is the effect of the key signature. | ||
| + | |||
====The Natural Sign==== | ====The Natural Sign==== | ||
| + | In many situations, it may be appropriate to "Cancel out" one of the note modifiers present in a key signature, and make it change back to the original note - just for one or two notes. This is achieved with another accidental sign (other than sharp({{sharp}}) and flat({{flat}})) that we have not yet learnt. | ||
| + | |||
| + | This sign is called the ''natural sign''. That is because, the ''natural'' of the note is the note without a sharp or flat. So, the possible modifications to D are: | ||
| + | |||
| + | * D{{sharp}} - D Sharp | ||
| + | * D{{flat}} - D Flat | ||
| + | * D - D Natural | ||
| + | Note that the Natural sign is usually only used as an accidental to show a reversion from the key signature. Here's a C Major scale, written in a G Major key signature, using the natural sign to cancel out the F{{sharp}} where it occurs. | ||
| + | |||
| + | [[File:theory-staff-keyGmajorFnat.png|frame|none|staff, treble clef, G major key signature and scale with natural F]] | ||
| + | |||
====A List of Major Key Signatures==== | ====A List of Major Key Signatures==== | ||
| + | Here's a list of common major keys, and their key signatures (i.e what sharps and flats are present). | ||
| + | |||
| + | [[File:theory-staff-keysmajorsharp.jpg|frame|none|grand staff, major keys with sharps]] | ||
| + | [[File:theory-staff-keysmajorflat.jpg|frame|none|grand staff, major keys with flats]] | ||
| + | |||
| + | Use this as a handy reference when composing. | ||
| + | |||
| + | '''Extra Info''': Note that we have only been dealing with ''major'' scales so far. Later on, when we learn about modes, we will also learn about the other common tonality: ''Minor''. Minor keys have the same key signatures as other, equivalent, major keys, except they start on a different note. They tend to sound more mournful and militaristic. | ||
===Modes=== | ===Modes=== | ||
| + | Now that you have a fair understanding of keys, we can learn a more advanced aspect of musical theory, ''modes''. We have touched on this earlier. When we first developed a Major scale, we observed that the C Major (and, all other major scales) use the following sequence of tones and semitones: | ||
| + | |||
| + | : T,T,S,T,T,T,S | ||
| + | |||
| + | (where T=Tone, and S=Semitone) | ||
| + | |||
| + | In addition to being a major scale, this sequence is also called a scale in the ''ionian'' mode. All major scales are ''ionian''. | ||
| + | |||
| + | You can achieve a variety of other modes by changing the sequence of tones or semitones. On a clear key signature (that is, no sharps or flats), it is as simple as playing all the white keys, except starting on a note other than C. For example, if you play all the white keys from middle D to another D, that produces a ''dorian'' scale. | ||
| + | |||
| + | As with the major scale, all modal configurations can be changed by introducing a key signature. For example, if you introduce a key signature with one sharp (G Major), then the ''dorian'' mode can be achieved by playing from A to A, with an F{{sharp}}. | ||
| + | |||
| + | I will now go through each mode, explain it's tonal configuration, and some possible compositional uses of each mode. I will also provide a MIDI file of the same tune being played in different modes. | ||
| + | |||
====Ionian Mode==== | ====Ionian Mode==== | ||
| + | : T,T,S,T,T,T,S | ||
| + | |||
| + | Played from: C to C | ||
| + | |||
| + | This is a mode that generally sounds uplifting, joyous. A major scale is ionian. This is the most common mode. | ||
| + | |||
| + | Tune: http://kamatsu.spheredev.org/ionian.mid | ||
| + | |||
====Dorian Mode==== | ====Dorian Mode==== | ||
| + | : T,S,T,T,T,S,T | ||
| + | |||
| + | Played from: D to D | ||
| + | |||
| + | This mode was often used in medieval times. It sounds like a minor scale at first, but later becomes more melodically major. If writing something for a medieval feel, Dorian mode is often the way to go. | ||
| + | |||
| + | Tune: http://kamatsu.spheredev.org/dorian.mid | ||
| + | |||
====Phrygian Mode==== | ====Phrygian Mode==== | ||
| + | : S,T,T,T,S,T,T | ||
| + | |||
| + | Played from: E to E | ||
| + | |||
| + | This mode was also often used in medieval times. With the initial semitone it can be somewhat jarring, but can be pulled off well in a good composition. | ||
| + | |||
| + | Tune: http://kamatsu.spheredev.org/phrygian.mid | ||
| + | |||
====Lydian Mode==== | ====Lydian Mode==== | ||
| + | : T,T,T,S,T,T,S | ||
| + | |||
| + | Played from: F to F | ||
| + | |||
| + | This mode is somewhat similar to a major scale, except the semitone has been moved by one place. | ||
| + | |||
| + | Tune: http://kamatsu.spheredev.org/lydian.mid | ||
| + | |||
====Mixolydian Mode==== | ====Mixolydian Mode==== | ||
| + | : T,T,S,T,T,S,T | ||
| + | |||
| + | Played from: G to G | ||
| + | |||
| + | This sounds almost like a major scale, once again, except the final few intervals have been altered. | ||
| + | |||
| + | Tune: http://kamatsu.spheredev.org/mixolydian.mid | ||
| + | |||
====Aeolian Mode==== | ====Aeolian Mode==== | ||
| + | : T,S,T,T,S,T,T | ||
| + | |||
| + | Played from: A to A | ||
| + | |||
| + | This is a sad, mournful mode. It also constitutes a natural minor scale. When one refers to "A Minor", the key signature is therefore the same as C Major (no sharps or flats), but the piece is in a different mode. | ||
| + | |||
| + | '''More info''': There is also ''melodic minor'', which has a raised ''ficta'' note on the seventh note in the scale. We will learn more about ficta in the next section. | ||
| + | |||
| + | Note that now that we know the natural minor equivalent of C, we can derive an updated Key signature chart, to show a specific key signature, its major key, and its minor key. One key signature can therefore mean many things! | ||
| + | |||
| + | [[File:theory-staff-keysmajorsharp.jpg|frame|none|grand staff, major keys with sharps]] | ||
| + | |||
| + | [[File:theory-staff-keysminorsharp.jpg|frame|none|grand staff, minor keys with sharps]] | ||
| + | |||
| + | [[File:theory-staff-keysmajorflat.jpg|frame|none|grand staff, major keys with flats]] | ||
| + | |||
| + | [[File:theory-staff-keysminorflat.jpg|frame|none|grand staff, minor keys with flats]] | ||
| + | |||
| + | |||
| + | Tune: http://kamatsu.spheredev.org/aeolian.mid | ||
| + | |||
====Locrian Mode==== | ====Locrian Mode==== | ||
| + | : S,T,T,S,T,T,T | ||
| + | |||
| + | Played from: B to B | ||
| + | |||
| + | This is a dissonant, tense mode. It is rarely used for the entirety of a composition. | ||
| + | |||
| + | Tune: http://kamatsu.spheredev.org/locrian.mid | ||
===Ficta and melodic minor=== | ===Ficta and melodic minor=== | ||
| + | ''Musica Ficta'' is a historic practice that dates back to medieval and renaissance performances, as a technique to make harmonies sound more melodic. | ||
| + | |||
| + | It was also used to avoid difficult or jarring intervals such as the ''tritone'', which were not considered stylistically appropriate at the time (in fact, the tritone was called the "diabolus in musica" or devil in music). | ||
| + | |||
| + | There are several common ways in which Ficta is used. Often F major parts will be harmonized with C Major parts. These keys are the same, except for the '''B{{flat}}'''. Often, therefore, B{{flat}} is notated with an accidental in a C Major part, to preserve harmony. You will also note that this makes the scale sound more melodic. | ||
| + | |||
| + | Another such application of ficta is to the ''melodic minor'' scale. This raises the seventh note in the aeolian, or natural minor scale, a ''ficta'' semitone higher. | ||
| + | |||
| + | So, an for the A natural minor scale: | ||
| + | ; A B C D E F G A | ||
| + | |||
| + | A melodic scale would be: | ||
| + | ; A B C D E F G{{sharp}} A | ||
| + | |||
| + | The ''melodic minor'' scale sounds more mysterious and can be used to very good effect. | ||
==Timing and Rhythmic Techniques== | ==Timing and Rhythmic Techniques== | ||
===Beats and Bars=== | ===Beats and Bars=== | ||
====Introduction==== | ====Introduction==== | ||
| + | If you listen to your favorite song, regardless of genre, you will almost undoubtedly hear a regular pulse, or beat, from which every note derives its length. Some might be half of one of these beats, some might be one, two, three or even four. If you listen carefully, some songs may sound like they are grouped into a certain amount of beats (it may be 2, 3, 4, or possibly 5). In music, we have a variety of ways to represent this. | ||
| + | |||
====Note Values and Time Signatures==== | ====Note Values and Time Signatures==== | ||
| + | Each note can be assigned a different ''note value''. A ''note value'' is the amount of beats for which a note is held. | ||
| + | |||
| + | Notes are grouped into ''bars'', one of which represents one logical grouping of beats as per the ''time signature''. | ||
| + | |||
| + | This seems like alot of terminology to swallow, so I'll start from the top: | ||
| + | |||
| + | When you found yourself counting "1,2,3,4,1,2,3,4", while listening to your favorite piece of music, you were counting out individual beats per bar. In this case, there are 4 beats to the bar. If you found yourself counting "1,2,3,1,2,3" (like a Waltz) then there were 3 beats to the bar. | ||
| + | |||
| + | There are a variety of ''time signatures'' in music, and these specify how many beats there are per bar, and how we will represent them on the page. | ||
| + | |||
=====Some Examples of Time Signatures===== | =====Some Examples of Time Signatures===== | ||
| + | [[File:theory-staff-timesig3d4.png|frame|none|treble staff, three-four time signature]] | ||
| + | |||
| + | In this example, there are ''three'' '''quarter notes''' to the bar. | ||
| + | |||
| + | [[File:theory-staff-timesig4d4.png|frame|none|treble staff, four-four time signature]] | ||
| + | |||
| + | In this example, there are ''four'' '''quarter notes''' to the bar. | ||
| + | |||
====More complicated time signatures==== | ====More complicated time signatures==== | ||
====Beat != Tempo==== | ====Beat != Tempo==== | ||
Latest revision as of 21:58, 31 May 2013
Welcome to kamatsu's article on Understanding Musical Theory.
The purpose of this article is to teach you:
- Basic Musical Notation
- Scales, Modes and Intervals
- Timing and Rhythmic Techniques
- Basic Harmony and Dissonance
- Chord Progressions
Contents
Scales, Keys, and Modes
The C Major Scale
Music is made up of notes. Notes are sounds of a particular frequency (measured in hertz). Different frequencies produce different pitches. For the purposes of musical composition, we have culturally assigned particular names to different frequencies as we hear them, usually letters. C, for example, is the note produced when you play the white key before a group of two black keys on a keyboard.
Note: You will notice that C occurs every 8 notes on the keyboard. Why is this? The notes are separated by a specific distance of frequencies called an octave, and, for those that know the physics, the frequencies are logarithmically compatible, so that playing them together will sound like the one note. This means that for almost all purposes they can be treated as effectively the same note. Try it, if you have access to a keyboard. You will hear that they sound the same, just with different stylised pitch.
On a Musical score (with a treble clef), we see C as one of these two notes (usually):
From this point, one can easily deduce the names of the other white key notes:
If you play the white keys on the keyboard, starting at C (C, D, E, F..) you will hear a distinctive sequence of notes that most people recognize as the major scale (Do, Re, Mi, Fa...). If you have no idea what a major scale sounds like, here's a recording:
( link "Link Here" formerly at http://kamatsu.spheredev.org/majorscale.ogg : OGG of C major scale )
This is a major scale in the key of C. That means, Do, or the tonic, is C. Later on, we'll learn how to change the tonic. Here's what a full C Major scale looks like in Musical Notation (with a treble clef):
Extra Info: Think of a melody, say, your national anthem. Then, change the note at which you start the melody. Can you still sing/play it? You should quickly realize that it doesn't actually matter what note you start on, or what note Do is, for a melody to be recognizable to the human ear. Most humans think of notes relative to each other, not relative to specific frequencies. So, you could sing the Major scale at any pitch, from A through G#, and it would still be a major scale. But, if you start playing a piano from D, and play all the white notes up to the next D, it doesn't sound like a major scale (it's actually a dorian scale). So, obviously, simply shifting all the notes up a line or space in the Notation isn't going to achieve a D Major scale. How do you achieve this? Well, first, we need to learn about semitones, and then keys.
Clefs
A clef is a sign that is put at the beginning of a line of notation (a staff - plural staves), that determines what each line represents pitch-wise. On a treble clef, the note on the line below the bottom line of the staff (i.e, Do:C in the above diagrams) represents a specific note called Middle C (so called because it is in the middle of a piano keyboard). In the Bass clef, Middle C is on the line above the top line of the staff.
Mnemonics for Treble Clef: Suppose you want to be able to immediately identify a note name from looking at a staff (a useful skill). Having a mnemonic or verse to help you remember what each line and spaces stands for is quite useful. Here's the mnemonics for the treble clef.
- For lines (starting at the bottom and going up) - Every Good Bolshevik Deserves Freedom. Or, less politically, Every Green Bus Drives Fast. Your choice.
- For Spaces (Starting at the bottom space and going up) - F A C E - It spells "FACE", or, alternatively, you can use: Free Alcohol Can Entice. Once again, your choice.
While for the most part in this article we will be using notation in the treble clef, the most common clef, some scores may be written in the bass clef. The Bass Clef is more suited to lower ranges.
Mnemonics for remembering the bass clef:
- Lines (starting at the bottom and going up) can be remembered by "Good Boys Deserve Free Alcohol".
- Spaces can be remembered by "All Cows Eat Grass."
Intervals, Tones, and Semitones
If you examine a keyboard:
You will quickly see that there are no black keys between E and F, and B and C. Even more importantly, some of you may be wondering what those black keys actually represent. Between most lettered notes (C, D, E...) there is another note. This note is named relative to the notes it is adjacent to, so the black key between C and D would be called C Sharp (C♯) or D Flat (D♭), depending on your point of reference. The interval between notes is the distance pitch-wise between them. The interval from C to D is called a tone. The distance, therefore, from C to C♯/D♭ is a semitone - half a tone.
Note: The interval between E and F, as well as B and C is not a tone as you would expect but a semitone. That is why there is no black key between these notes. As a corollary of this, E♯ is therefore the same note as F, and B♯ is the same note as C (And C♭ = B, and F♭ = E). If you listen carefully to the major scale recording I played earlier, and you have a good musical ear, you may be able to hear the difference in the interval on these notes. An octave is another type of interval. We will learn more about intervals later in the introduction to harmony.
Now that we have learnt about semitones, we can develop a chromatic scale. A chromatic scale is a scale that goes up by a semitone each interval. Here's a chromatic scale in musical notation.
Note: The first staff uses sharps to notate the semitones, whereas the second staff uses flats. They produce the same tune.
As with before, you can listen to the chromatic scale produced by the above staves below:
( link "Link Here" formerly at http://kamatsu.spheredev.org/chroma.ogg : OGG of chromatic scale )
Notice how we start and finish the scale on the same two notes (an octave apart) that we see from the Major Scale, however we fit a helluva lot more notes in?
Compositional Tip: Moving chromatically in a piece can add a chaotic, tense element to your sound. Note however that chromatic music is very difficult to write well, so wait until you're fairly experienced.
Extra Info: Notating sharps or flats in this fashion - next to the notes that are modified - is called accidental notation. If you apply an accidental to a note, that accidental will apply for the rest of the bar to all notes on the line or space on which the accidental occurs. A bar is a way of grouping notes according to time, and they are separated by long vertical lines (as we see in the above staves). We will learn more about bars, barlines, as well as the natural symbol after we have covered keys and time signatures.
Key Signatures and Accidentals
If we examine the intervals of a C Major Scale, we can construct the following list of intervals:
- C to D - Tone
- D to E - Tone
- E to F - Semitone
- F to G - Tone
- G to A - Tone
- A to B - Tone
- B to C - Semitone
This should lead the more apt of you to consider applying the same sequence of intervals from a different starting note. By doing this, you can "move" the major scale to any tonic note. For example, suppose we wanted to make our Major scale start on a G, we simply need to keep the interval pattern of tones and semitones the same as in the C Major Scale:
- G to A - Tone
- A to B - Tone
- B to C - Semitone
- C to D - Tone
- D to E - Tone
- E to F♯ - Tone
- F♯ to G - Semitone
Playing or singing this through will result in a similar sounding scale to the C Major one we heard earlier - except it starts on G.
This leads one on to a concept of a key. A Key is defined in musical notation with a Key Signature. They look like a series of accidentals that are placed at the beginning of a bar (or line) rather than at the beginning of a note.
A Key Signature that, for example, has a sharp in the "F" line on the staff (that is, G Major), looks like the following (with a preceding treble clef):
This instructs the reader of the music to read all occurrences of "F" in the music as "F♯" instead of just plain old F, until another key signature occurs. The advantage of this is that you can write music in another key (i.e using another scale and another tonic) without cluttering up your music with pesky accidentals.
So, we can now produce a G Major Scale in musical notation with a key signature (as F is replaced with F♯ in all instances), as follows:
Note: Notice how the "Do, re, mi…" scale has moved so that "Do" (tonic) is now on G? That is the effect of the key signature.
The Natural Sign
In many situations, it may be appropriate to "Cancel out" one of the note modifiers present in a key signature, and make it change back to the original note - just for one or two notes. This is achieved with another accidental sign (other than sharp(♯) and flat(♭)) that we have not yet learnt.
This sign is called the natural sign. That is because, the natural of the note is the note without a sharp or flat. So, the possible modifications to D are:
- D♯ - D Sharp
- D♭ - D Flat
- D - D Natural
Note that the Natural sign is usually only used as an accidental to show a reversion from the key signature. Here's a C Major scale, written in a G Major key signature, using the natural sign to cancel out the F♯ where it occurs.
A List of Major Key Signatures
Here's a list of common major keys, and their key signatures (i.e what sharps and flats are present).
Use this as a handy reference when composing.
Extra Info: Note that we have only been dealing with major scales so far. Later on, when we learn about modes, we will also learn about the other common tonality: Minor. Minor keys have the same key signatures as other, equivalent, major keys, except they start on a different note. They tend to sound more mournful and militaristic.
Modes
Now that you have a fair understanding of keys, we can learn a more advanced aspect of musical theory, modes. We have touched on this earlier. When we first developed a Major scale, we observed that the C Major (and, all other major scales) use the following sequence of tones and semitones:
- T,T,S,T,T,T,S
(where T=Tone, and S=Semitone)
In addition to being a major scale, this sequence is also called a scale in the ionian mode. All major scales are ionian.
You can achieve a variety of other modes by changing the sequence of tones or semitones. On a clear key signature (that is, no sharps or flats), it is as simple as playing all the white keys, except starting on a note other than C. For example, if you play all the white keys from middle D to another D, that produces a dorian scale.
As with the major scale, all modal configurations can be changed by introducing a key signature. For example, if you introduce a key signature with one sharp (G Major), then the dorian mode can be achieved by playing from A to A, with an F♯.
I will now go through each mode, explain it's tonal configuration, and some possible compositional uses of each mode. I will also provide a MIDI file of the same tune being played in different modes.
Ionian Mode
- T,T,S,T,T,T,S
Played from: C to C
This is a mode that generally sounds uplifting, joyous. A major scale is ionian. This is the most common mode.
Tune: http://kamatsu.spheredev.org/ionian.mid
Dorian Mode
- T,S,T,T,T,S,T
Played from: D to D
This mode was often used in medieval times. It sounds like a minor scale at first, but later becomes more melodically major. If writing something for a medieval feel, Dorian mode is often the way to go.
Tune: http://kamatsu.spheredev.org/dorian.mid
Phrygian Mode
- S,T,T,T,S,T,T
Played from: E to E
This mode was also often used in medieval times. With the initial semitone it can be somewhat jarring, but can be pulled off well in a good composition.
Tune: http://kamatsu.spheredev.org/phrygian.mid
Lydian Mode
- T,T,T,S,T,T,S
Played from: F to F
This mode is somewhat similar to a major scale, except the semitone has been moved by one place.
Tune: http://kamatsu.spheredev.org/lydian.mid
Mixolydian Mode
- T,T,S,T,T,S,T
Played from: G to G
This sounds almost like a major scale, once again, except the final few intervals have been altered.
Tune: http://kamatsu.spheredev.org/mixolydian.mid
Aeolian Mode
- T,S,T,T,S,T,T
Played from: A to A
This is a sad, mournful mode. It also constitutes a natural minor scale. When one refers to "A Minor", the key signature is therefore the same as C Major (no sharps or flats), but the piece is in a different mode.
More info: There is also melodic minor, which has a raised ficta note on the seventh note in the scale. We will learn more about ficta in the next section.
Note that now that we know the natural minor equivalent of C, we can derive an updated Key signature chart, to show a specific key signature, its major key, and its minor key. One key signature can therefore mean many things!
Tune: http://kamatsu.spheredev.org/aeolian.mid
Locrian Mode
- S,T,T,S,T,T,T
Played from: B to B
This is a dissonant, tense mode. It is rarely used for the entirety of a composition.
Tune: http://kamatsu.spheredev.org/locrian.mid
Ficta and melodic minor
Musica Ficta is a historic practice that dates back to medieval and renaissance performances, as a technique to make harmonies sound more melodic.
It was also used to avoid difficult or jarring intervals such as the tritone, which were not considered stylistically appropriate at the time (in fact, the tritone was called the "diabolus in musica" or devil in music).
There are several common ways in which Ficta is used. Often F major parts will be harmonized with C Major parts. These keys are the same, except for the B♭. Often, therefore, B♭ is notated with an accidental in a C Major part, to preserve harmony. You will also note that this makes the scale sound more melodic.
Another such application of ficta is to the melodic minor scale. This raises the seventh note in the aeolian, or natural minor scale, a ficta semitone higher.
So, an for the A natural minor scale:
- A B C D E F G A
A melodic scale would be:
- A B C D E F G♯ A
The melodic minor scale sounds more mysterious and can be used to very good effect.
Timing and Rhythmic Techniques
Beats and Bars
Introduction
If you listen to your favorite song, regardless of genre, you will almost undoubtedly hear a regular pulse, or beat, from which every note derives its length. Some might be half of one of these beats, some might be one, two, three or even four. If you listen carefully, some songs may sound like they are grouped into a certain amount of beats (it may be 2, 3, 4, or possibly 5). In music, we have a variety of ways to represent this.
Note Values and Time Signatures
Each note can be assigned a different note value. A note value is the amount of beats for which a note is held.
Notes are grouped into bars, one of which represents one logical grouping of beats as per the time signature.
This seems like alot of terminology to swallow, so I'll start from the top:
When you found yourself counting "1,2,3,4,1,2,3,4", while listening to your favorite piece of music, you were counting out individual beats per bar. In this case, there are 4 beats to the bar. If you found yourself counting "1,2,3,1,2,3" (like a Waltz) then there were 3 beats to the bar.
There are a variety of time signatures in music, and these specify how many beats there are per bar, and how we will represent them on the page.
Some Examples of Time Signatures
In this example, there are three quarter notes to the bar.
In this example, there are four quarter notes to the bar.
